History of Adult and Community Education in the 1990’s
Nicole Bowland Fischer
Ball State University
EDAC 631 Adult and Community Education
Dr. Bo Chang
Due: February 11th, 2024
Your name | Commented On |
Nicole Bowland Fischer | Jaici Wright |
Introduction:
Adult Education was shaped by a variety of factors in the 1990s. There was a continued focus on adult literacy, a movement which began in the late 1980s. There was an expanded focus on providing adults with the opportunity to obtain a post-secondary education, work on skill certifications and other recognized credentials needed for job growth and promotion. The federal government began to shift their focus to trade-related education and training programs and linking them with adult literacy education. There was also increased federal funding available to states for adult literacy. (Hurst et al., 2003) Adults engaging in educational opportunities increased significantly throughout the 1990s. In 1990 goals and benchmarks for educational programming were released by President George Bush. This was the beginning of the implementation of standardized testing to ensure there was some uniformity in educational environments. President Bill Clinton released a Ten-Point plan for education in 1997 which further discussed these educational standards as well as expanding the accessibility of education. (Sticht, 2002) Also, there was a revamping of the student loan program after significant criticisms and expanded tax credits for post-secondary education. (Eyre, 2013)
Highlights:
The National Literacy Act (NLA) of 1991, which replaced the Adult Education Act of 1966, made federal funds available to a larger number of nonprofit education providers due to the added requirement there been “direct and equitable access” to federal basic grant funds. The NLA also prioritized adult literacy in the workforce. The prioritization of adult literacy in the workforce was to ensure the ability of American workers and companies to remain competitive and a leader with other counties. However, this positive of the NLA raised significant concerns that the goal was not lessen the number of adults who were illiterate and focus rather on increasing the competitiveness of America with the rest of the world. The intent of adult literacy education was to lessen the number of families in poverty and provide the opportunity for all people to have equal access to educational opportunities and greater opportunities in the workforce. With the Workforce Investment Act of 1998, that focus again shifted back to the original intent of providing a large array of adult educational opportunities as well as literacy services for the purpose of adults “bettering” themselves and their families. (Creighton & Hudson, 2002; Eyre, 2013)
President Bill Clinton released his Ten-point plan for Education in 1997. In this document, he had ten items which he felt were necessary to continue expanding educational opportunities throughout the Country and funding. The Ten-point plan for education also discussed the increased need for technology such as the internet for schools as well as further identifying standards for education to ensure there were minimum requirements students would need to be met ensure there has been a transfer of learning. (Clinton, 1998)
Influential Factors:
Technology began to move to the forefront of everyday life in the 1990s. While previously there had been computers accessible, the invention of the internet and world wide web expanded the availability of information accessible to people. Technology played an integral part in the accessibility of adult education opportunities available. This was also the beginning of online educational programming that made a person's location much less of a hindrance than before. Technology was also one of the items President Clinton felt were integral to education and its success. (Clinton, 1998)
The Higher Education Amendments of 1992 were the start of the student loan lending system we know today. These amendments created the FAFSA, Direct Lending program and unsubsidized Stafford loans. The newly created unsubsidized Stafford loans meant that borrowers would be responsible for covering the interest of their loans even while in school; the interest was previously paid for by the federal government. The federal student loan system continued with its transformation with the implementation of The Student Loan Reform Act in 1993. The direct lending program which was previously introduced in 1992 in the Higher Education Amendments was officially implemented. The Direct Lending program allowed the government to directly loan money to student loan borrowers instead of the requirement of going through a private institution. (Choy, 2004)
Implications:
There was a large shift in the participation in adult education opportunities from 1991 to 1999. The largest participation in adult educational opportunities were those provided by various community organizations. The participation in adult educational opportunities provided by community organizations more than doubled while the other participation rates for other forms of adult education remained a uniform increase across categories. (Creighton & Hudson, 2002)
There were also numerous tax reforms implemented in the late 1990s. One of these changes in taxes and refunds was the Taxpayer Relief Act of 1997. The Lifetime Learning Credit and HOPE credit were two of these changes which incentivized postsecondary education. The Lifetime Learning Credit is a credit that reduces the amount of taxes owed for expenses paid to an eligible learning institution and for fees related to that enrollment. There is no limit to the number of years this credit can be claimed, however there is currently a limit of $2,000. The HOPE credit was also implemented but had greater restrictions. The HOPE credit could only be claimed during the first two years of postsecondary education and was limited to $1,800 total. This has since been replaced with the American Opportunity Tax Credit in 2009. The goal for these additional credits was to make postsecondary education more accessible and affordable. (IRS, 1998)
The expanded use of technology in general, which really began to come to the forefront in the 1990s continued to expand exponentially. This increased use of technology such as computers and the internet were the beginning of online educational opportunities for adult learners. As technology advanced so did the opportunities available for education. This has morphed into the online learning environments we know today.
Summary Table:
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References:
Choy, S. P. (2004, June). Paying for College: Changes between 1990 and 2000 for Full Time Dependent Undergraduates. National Center for Educational Statistics. https://nces.ed.gov/pubs2004/2004075.pdf
Clinton, B. (1998). President Clinton’s Call to Action for American Education in the 21st Century. Academia.edu. https://www.academia.edu/55619736/President_Clintons_Call_to_Action_for_American_Education_in_the_21st_Century
Creighton, S., & Hudson, L. (2002, February). Participation trends and patterns in Adult Education: 1991 to 1999. National Center for Educational Statistics. https://nces.ed.gov/pubs2002/2002119.pdf
Eyre, G. A. (2013, November). Federal Adult Education—A Legislative History - 1964-2013. U.S. Department of Education. https://lincs.ed.gov/publications/pdf/Adult_Ed_History_Report.pdf
Hamil-Luker, J., & Uhlenberg, P. (2002). Later Life Education in the 1990s: Increasing Involvement and Continuing Disparity. The Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 57B (6), 324-331. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/57.6.s324
Hurst, D., Tan, A., Meek, A., & Sellers, J. (2003, July). Overview and Inventory of State Education Reforms: 1990 to 2000. National Center for Educational Statistics. https://nces.ed.gov/pubs2003/2003020.pdf
IRS. (1998). Lifetime Learning Credit. Internal Revenue Service. https://www.irs.gov/credits-deductions/individuals/llc
Kopka, T. C., Schantz, N. B., & Korb, R. A. (1998, February). Adult Education in the 1990s: A Report on the 1991 National Household Education Survey. National Center for Educational Statistics. https://nces.ed.gov/pubs98/98701.pdf
National Archives and Records Administration. (2001). The Clinton-Gore Administration: A Record of Progress. The Clinton Presidency. https://clintonwhitehouse5.archives.gov/WH/Accomplishments/eightyears-05.html
Sticht, T. G. (2002). (rep.). The Rise of the Adult Education and Literacy System in the United States: 1600-2000. National Center for the Study of Adult Learning and Literacy (NCSALL). Retrieved January 30, 2024, from https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED508720.pdf.
Very well written. The 20th Century in the 1990's made many contributions to adult education.
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