Adult Education in the 1920s

 

Adult Education in the 1920s 

Your name	Commented On
Conor Dailey	Molly McCabe

 

Conor D. Dailey 

Ball State University 

EDAC 631: Adult and Community Education 

Feb. 4th, 2024 

 

Adult Education in the 1920s  

The 1920s represents a pivotal period in world history. The First World War concluded two years prior to the start of the decade, global economies boomed, and a period of significant industrial growth marked the start of the decade. At the end of the decade, however, the stock market crashed leading to the Great Depression and communism and fascism were on the rise which would eventually contribute to leading the world to the second World War at the end of the 1930s. The 1920s also led to significant cultural advances as well. Jazz music emerged as a dominant art form; the Harlem Renaissance contributed to the advancement of African American identities, and the Art Deco architecture style flourished. Moreover, the league of nations was founded, and while criticized for its shortcomings, it eventually gave way to the United Nations. The 1920s also saw the field of adult education become more formalized across the world.  

Leading up to the 1920s, adult education had achieved a solid foundation. Cartwright (1935) notes by 1839 over 3,000 lyceums were spread throughout New England, with each taking on an educational leadership role for the surrounding communities. Knowles (1962) further discussed the lyceum and recognized that while the model did not become permanently established, its concept and method were exceptionally valuable to later institutions. The lyceum, as Cartwright (1935) indicates, led to John Vincent (a Bishop) to expand a Sunday School association, and enter the general field of adult education. By the conclusion of the American Civil War, Knowles (1962) suggests three major forms of adult education had become established (local institutes, libraries, and museums), with a fourth (adult evening school) beginning its development.  

The late 1800s and early 1900s were hallmarked by the beginnings of the university extension movement and education through public libraries (Cartwright, 1935). Despite having this foundational beginning, Cartwright (1935) suggests there was still a lack of consciousness offered to the amount and character of adult education. By 1920 the number of adult education institutions and forms had greatly increased since 1865. Correspondence schools, residential labor colleges, junior colleges, social service agencies, national voluntary associations and others had become firmly established (Knowles, 1962). Knowles suggests the general content area of adult education had shifted away from general knowledge, and instead focused on relevant social areas such as citizenship and Americanization, civic and social reform, and vocational education (1962). Finally, leading in to the 1920s, key federal legislation was adopted with notable advancements being the establishment of the Department of Education, the creation of the Cooperative Extension Service (through the Smith-Lever Act), and the Smith-Hughes Vocational Education Act (Knowles, 1962).  

Highlights 

    The 1920s can be viewed as building on the foundation of what came before, while also offering a new foundation for the significant rise of adult education in the decades that followed. Hendrickson (1943) identified two key factors that characterized adult education in the 1920s. The first was the concept of having a functioning democracy requires continuous education for both vocational adjustment and political efficiency (Hendrickson notes this was specifically advanced by Edward Thorndike). The second prominent factor was the need for additional education beyond the rudiments for former aliens and illiterates (Hendrickson, 1943). Hendrickson (1943) also reflects on the founding of the American Association for Adult Education (AAAE) which was established in 1926. This association, as Hendrickson (1943) notes, was awarded substantial grants with the total reaching nearly 3 million dollars between the period of 1924 to 1934. Another prominent association of the time was the Department of Adult Education (formally known as the Department of Immigrant Education of the National Education Association) which focused on adult education activities of public schools across the country (Hendrickson, 1943).  

    Adult education in the 1920s was primarily characterized by numerous significant institutional developments. Knowles (1994) identified the following areas as being substantial contributors to the development of adult education beginning in the 1920s: business and industry, colleges and universities, cooperative extension service, foundations, government agencies, voluntary health and welfare agencies, independent and residential centers, labor unions, libraries, mass media of communications, museums and art institutes, proprietary schools, public schools, religious institutions, and voluntary associations.  

Beginning with business and industry, Knowles (1994) notes an assertion made by the United States Congress in 1928 that “the most significant fact in American industrial and professional life at present is this steady transformation of industry and the professions into educational institutions.” Colleges and universities experienced massive growth following the end of World War 1. This growth can be divided into significant growth from individuals engaged with universities and colleges (students and faculty members alike), an increase in the scope of services for adult education, and increasing fiscal dedication toward extension operations (Knowles, 1994).  

The preeminent educational component of labor unions in the 1920s was the Workers Education Bureau which, as Knowles (1994) notes, eventually became the “official educational arm of the organized labor movement.” The 1920s represented a significant growth in adult education programs associated with public schools. Knowles (1994) indicates the number of engaged adults exceeded 1 million in 1924 and continued to substantially increase into the following decades. The 1920s also saw the adult education curriculum expand to adopt the “need-meeting” doctrine as notably advocated for by Lindeman (Knowles, 1994). Knowles (1994) also discussed the importance of voluntary associations, which during the 1920s, began to have specific adult education roles in their organizational structure and established cooperative endeavors with other adult education agencies.  

The 1920s also saw the emergence of national organizations for adult education. The organization that emerged in the 1920s has already been briefly discussed but will be discussed here in further detail. The American Association for Adult Education (AAAE) was founded in 1926 following the unanimous endorsement of four regional conferences to establish a national organization (Knowles, 1962). The initial purpose of the association was “to promote the development and improvement of adult education in the United States” (Knowles, 1962), with a central goal of determining if adult education was worth of the expenditure of resources to advance. Knowles (1962) suggests by 1929, the AAAE had determined adult education had become integral to the American educational field through formal and informal means.  

Hendrickson (1943) notes the peak years of adult education during the decade was the period between 1928 and 1930 (the former having the greatest number of programs, while the latter had the greatest number of individuals engaged). This strength led to provisions for adult education to be memorialized in state statutes. Hendrickson (1943) notes 1927 alone saw seven states pass laws relating to adult education and that by near the end of the following decade there were only six states without explicit provision for adult education programs.  

Influential Factors 

Early in the 1920s, the New School (an institution that began offering adult education courses in 1919) served as a prominent institution in adult education. At its foundation, the New School was an institution of higher learning purpose-built for adult learners. As Stubblefield (1988) notes, students at the New School were adults who had some experience in their subject field and had a need to learn. This allowed the New School to develop its own approach to adult education, with two competing agendas emerging. The approach that was adopted focused on the general and deliberate diffusion of knowledge to the general public/reader (Stubblefield, 1988). The other approach, however, advocated to ensure adult learners to greatly advance social change. And while this was eventually dismissed by the New School, the model of substantial social engineering and experimentation was advanced by Eduard Lindeman (Stubblefield, 1988). 

Lindeman served as a key influential figure in adult education in the 1920s. Knowles (1994) reflected on Lindeman’s advocacy for the adoption of the “need-meeting” doctrine citing an excerpt from Lindeman’s 1926 treatise “The Meaning of Adult Education.” Lindeman’s 1926 work suggested the approach to adult education must be through situations, not subjects which will allow for the curriculum to be built around the (adult) learner’s needs and interests (Knowles, 1994). Lindeman also advocated for adult learners relying on their own experience with various situations to inform their education (Knowles, 1994) and by doing so, education can be employed to analyze complex situations and break them down to manageable portions (Ohio Literary Resource Center, 2022).  The adoption of the “needs-meeting” doctrine also led to a substantial growth in avocational subjects, such as the arts, home and family relations, and other personal development areas (Knowles, 1994).  

A key foundation that supported adult education in the 1920s was the Carnegie Corporation. Beginning his presidency in 1923, Frederick Keppel began to shift the organization to including adult education in its funding area, and eventually awarded close to five million dollars to the AAAE over the fifteen-year period (1924 to 1941) the Carnegie Corporation supported the association (Knowles, 1994). The growth of broadcasting as a method for adult education is another key influential factor from the 1920s. Knowles (1994) discusses how the National Broadcasting Company established an advisory council to inform the Company on public service broadcasts which included lectures and other educational broadcasts.  

Implications 

In reviewing adult education in the 1920s, it is clear the advances made in adult and community education during the decade established a solid foundation for the decades to come. Two key influential factors from the 1920s emerge that can continue to impact adult education today. The first is the approach adopted by the New School. This approach called for the deliberate diffusion of knowledge to the general public (Stubblefield, 1988). In other words, the approach calls to ensure the content being covered is accessible to the learner, and that the learner can easily view how the content can apply to their desired area of learning. The second key implication that emerged from the 1920s is the doctrine of “needs-meeting.” This doctrine calls for approaching adult education through situations, not subjects which allows for the learner’s needs and interests to be directly met by the curriculum (Knowles, 1994). The work that was done in the 1920s directly contributed to the future growth and rapid expansion of adult education in the subsequent decades.  

 

Table 1 Summary of Adult and Community Education in the 1920s 

Area	Summary
Social Background	Significant economic boom; key cultural advances; history of adult education up to 1920
Highlights	Substantial institutional developments; broad growth; “needs-meeting” doctrine
Influential Factors	The New School; American Association for Adult Education; Eduard Lindeman; Radio Broadcasting
Implications	General knowledge diffusion and “needs-meeting” doctrine

 

 

​​References​  

Cartwright, M. A. (1935). Ten Years of Adult Education; A Report on a Decade of Progress in the American Movement. The Macmillan Company.  

Hendrickson, A. (1943). Trends in Public School Adult Education in Cities of the United States 1929-1939. Teachers College, Columbia University.  

Knowles, M. S. (1962). The Adult Education Movement in the United States. Holt, Rinehart, and Winston.  

Knowles, M. S. (1994). A History of the Adult Education Movement in the United States: Includes Adult Education Institutions through 1976 ([Rev. Ed.].). Krieger Pub. Co. 

Ohio Literacy Resource Center. (2022). Leaders in the Field of Adult Education: Eduard C. Lindeman. https://literacy.kent.edu/Oasis/Pubs/0800-1.htm 

Stubblefield, H. W. (1988). Towards a History of Adult Education in America: The Search for a Unifying Principle. Croom Helm.