History Paper on Adult Education in the 1960s - Mann, D.

Name	Commented on:
Donovan Mann	Group 7 (Hadi & Roussel)

 

Donovan W. Mann

Ball State University

Adult and Community Education

EDAC 631: Intro to Adult and Community Education

Dr. Bo Chang

 

Introduction

            To understand the developments in adult education during the 1960s, it is vital to look at the social and political background of the time period.  As many Americans pushed for equality, political figures began to push for legislation that would bridge the economic and social gap. 

            The Modern Civil Rights Movement began in the 1950s and continued into the 1960s. In 1957, the first Civil Rights Act established the U.S. Commision on Civil Rights, whose research ultimately led to the Civil Rights Act of 1964. (National Park Service, n.d., para. 2). This Act “forbade discrimination on the basis of sex, as well as, race in hiring, promoting, and firing” as well public accommodations and federally funded programs (U.S. Department of Labor, n.d., para. 2).

            During the Modern Civil Rights Movement, prominent figures led multiple historical moments. Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. led the peaceful March on Washington on August 28, 1963 where he gave his “I Have a Dream” speech (Library of Congress, n.d., para. 6). On March 7, 1965, the civil rights march in Selma, Alabama, led by John Lewis, turned violent as law enforcement used excessive force to stop the crossing of the Edmund Pettus Bridge, leading to national outrage and huge support of the movement (Library of Congress, n.d., para. 7). On March 21, 1965, thousands of marchers crossed the bridge under the protection of the National Guard (Library of Congress, n.d. Para. 7).

            The decade also began with an economic recession. From 1960-61, unemployment reached seven percent in the country (Huddleston Jr., 2020). The workforce also saw a shift due to the rise in technology in the workplace (Livingston, 1968). The country was in need of an economic stimulus and the workforce in need of refinement.

            As a result of a need for economic growth, legislation focusing on adult education was developed. President John F. Kennedy sought such policies because he believed in the “need for the nation to increase its investment in its human resources” and drew a connection between emphasis on adult education and increased productivity and technological change (Eyre, 2013). Following the assassination of President Kennedy, his successor Lyndon B. Johnson devoted his administration to the “War on Poverty,” believing the “government’s role in education could serve as an anti-poverty strategy” (Eyre, 2013).

Highlights

Multiple policies were introduced in the 1960s that played a role in adult education. The Manpower Development and Training Act of 1962 was brought forth to “reduce structural unemployment and meet the nation’s rapidly changing manpower requirement” (Smith, 1968). The Act allowed the funding of projects to help develop unemployed and underemployed individuals in “occupational skills determined to be in demand in their geographic areas” (Smith, 1968). The distribution of funds was within the framework of federal systems to states to develop projects within the conditions of the federal government (Smith, 1968).

Another policy from the early 1960s was the Vocational Education Act of 1963. The passage of this act represented a “basic shift and expansion” of federal funding programs to vocational education (Wolfe, 1978). The act allowed federal finances to be directed not just towards programs of specific occupations but “to that of preparing all groups in the community regardless of their vocational emphasis or attachment to the labor force” (Wolfe, 1978). Additionally the goal was to assist those who had difficulty succeeding in regular vocational education programs due to socioeconomic and academic reasons (Wolfe, 1978). In 1968, the Vocational Education Act would get amended to specifically target funds for the disadvantaged, handicapped, and postsecondary education (Wolfe, 1978). 

The mid-60s continued the rise in focus on adult education in the United States with the Economic Opportunity Act of 1964. “The purpose of this Act was to focus on persons 18 years of age and older whose inability to read or write English constituted a substantial impairment to their ability to obtain or retain employment” (Eyre, 2013). By creating a host of new resources, the aim was to help families escape the cycle of poverty (Eyre, 2013). 

As the Civil Rights Act was adopted, it included language with the goal of equality in public programs, including adult education programs funded by federal funds. Title VI, sec. 601 reads “no person in the United States shall, on the ground of race, color, or national origin, be excluded from participation in, be denied the benefits of, or be subjected to discrimination under any program or activity receiving Federal financial assistance” (National Archives, 2022). Title IV of the Civil Rights Act instructed the Commissioner of Education to conduct surveys of the public schooling system to ensure there were equal educational opportunities (National Archives, 2022). Furthermore, the Act authorized the Commissioner to arrange with higher education institutions to implement special training to improve the ability of teachers, supervisors, counselors and other school personnel to deal effectively with special education problems brought forth by segregation (National Archives, 2022).

Two years following the signing of the Economic Opportunities Act, The Adult Education of 1966 was signed by President Johnson. This Act was first introduced by Carl Perkins of Kentucky in 1962 after President Kennedy addressed education to congress (Rose, 1991). However, it wasn’t until four years later the bill was adopted as an extension of the Economic Opportunity Act (Rose, 1991). The act was developed to provide funds to the states to “develop, administer, and maintain basic education programs for adults” (Rose, 1991). The act also called for the establishment of an advisory committee that would advise the Commissioner of Education in the preparation of regulations, the policy development, and program coordination (Rose, 1991). The Adult Education Act would ultimately receive five amendments, starting in 1968 and continuing until 1978 (Eyre, 2013). 

Influential Factors

While efforts of political involvement in adult education were made prior to the 1960s, the support of the federal government was really prominent during this decade. President John F. Kennedy turned his focus to rebuilding the country’s economy through education of the labor force (Eyre, 2013). His support for educational opportunity as well as equal opportunity would inspire others to take up the mantle after his assassination.

President Lyndon B. Johnson continued his predecessor's work in supporting adult education. “It took President Kennedy’s assassination and Lyndon Johnson’s rise to leadership to open the legislation floodgates” (Eyre, 2013). It was President Johnson who signed into law many of the acts previously listed in this paper. The president called his legacy the “Great Society” believing his role and the role of the government was to support education to combat poverty (Eyre, 2013). 

Many groups and organizations were involved in the lobbying efforts to support adult education during the 1960s. The Adult Education Association (AEA), founded in 1951, moved their offices to Washington, D.C. in 1964 to increase their lobbying efforts (Adult Education Association, 1994). As the AEA developed, their goals became more inclusive towards many aspects of adult education (Adult Education Association, 1994). The National Association of Public School Adult Educators (NAPSAE) was a group that branched from the AEA and focused efforts in the 60s on lobbying for acts such as the Adult Education Act (Rose, 1991).

After the 19p68 amendment to the Adult Education Act, a great focus on adult literacy became clearer (Eyre, 2013). Due to this legislation, adult education organizations and leaders began to plan a Galaxy Conference on Adult Education that would be held in December of 1969, last for four days and be attended by over 4,000 leaders in the field (Eyre, 2013). The purpose was to provide new direction and emphasis to adult education as a “vital segment of American education” (Eyre, 2013).

The 1960s saw the rise of many historic and influential adult educators of their times. Brazilian author and adult educator Paulo Freire applied his life to the field of adult education. His “pedagogy of literacy education involves not only reading the word, but also reading the world” (Bently, 1999). In 1967 he published his first book, Education as the practice of freedom which helped him land a position at Harvard in 1969 (Bently, 1999). Freire began work on his famous Pedagogy of the oppressed in 1968, having it published in both Spanish and English in 1970 (Bently, 1999).

 Another prominent figure in adult education at the time was M.S. Knowles who is considered a “champion” of such concepts as andragogy, self-direction in learning and informal education (Smith, 2002). In 1962 he released his work entitled A History of the Adult Education Movement in the USA and in 1968 released a work called Andragogy, not pedagogy (Smith, 2002). Knowles’ impact would continue beyond the 1960s as he continued to change the field of adult education with his ideas, work, and theories (Smith, 2002).

Implications

A quote and warning from the Commissioner of Professors in 1961 highlights one major implication from what events in adult education during the 1960s can tell modern practitioners. “A society that makes its educational investment almost entirely in children and youth is on the way to becoming obsolete and reducing its chances for survival” (Commission of the Professors of Adult Education, 1961, as quoted by Long & Agyekum, 1974). The Commission published this statement due to the shift they sensed was coming in the field (Long & Agyekum, 1974). 

The near prophecy provided by the Commission in 1961 was emphasized by what was to come in for adult education throughout the entirety of the decade following their statement. The growth of policies supported by the prominent government leaders provided evidence of the overall shift for adult education during the 1960s. As A.A. Livingston (1968) states “social and economic trends clearly underline the need for continuing education.” To rephrase, as society changes, adults need to learn in order to adapt efficiently.

Modern day practitioners can learn from the lessons of the past. The fight to support education at a federal level can continue with new policies and releasing of funds to support local adult education. Another lesson to be learned from events such as the civil rights movement is education and opportunity should be equally available for all. As society evolves due to economic and social factors, adult education becomes an important piece to the survival of that society.

Table 1. Summary of the History of Adult and Community Education

Area	Summary
Introduction	Civil Rights Movement Economic Recession John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson’s presidencies
Highlights	Manpower and Development and Training Act of 1962 Vocational Education Act of 1963 (amending in 1968) Economic Opportunities Act of 1964 Civil Rights Act of 1964 Adult Education Act of 1966 (amended in 1968)
Influential Factors	President John F. Kennedy President Lyndon B. Johnson Adult Education Association National Association of Public School Adult Educators Galaxy Conference on Adult Education (1969) Paul Freire M.S. Knowles
Implications	Societal investment on equal and available education is important to the survival of the society.

 

References

Adult Adult Education Association (1994). Adult Education Association (AEA-USA)/American Association for Adult and Continuing Education (AAACE) Records. Syracuse University Libraries Special Collection Research Center. Retrieved from https://library.syracuse.edu/digital/guides/a/aaace.htm 

Bently, L. (1999). A brief biography of Paulo Freire. Retrieved on January 18, 2024 from https://ptoweb.org/aboutpto/a-brief-biography-of-paulo-freire/. 

Eyre, G. (2013). Federal adult education - A legislative history. U.S Department of Education. Retrieved from https://lincs.ed.gov/publications/pdf/Adult_Ed_History_Report.pdf. 

Huddleston Jr., T. (2020). How many recessions you’ve actually lived through and what happened in every one. CNBC. Retrieved from https://www.cnbc.com/2020/04/09/what-happened-in-every-us-recession-since-the-great-depression.html on January 17, 2024.

Library of Congress, (n.d.). The civil rights movement. Retrieved from https://www.loc.gov/classroom-materials/united-states-history-primary-source-timeline/post-war-united-states-1945-1968/civil-rights-movement/#:~:text=The%20Civil%20Rights%20Act%20of,%2C%20sex%2C%20or%20national%20origin. 

Livingston, A.A., (1968). A study of adult education in the United States. Center for the Study of Liberal Education for Adults.

Long, H.B., & Agyekum, S.K. (1974). Adult education 1964-1973: Reflections of a changing discipline. Adult Education Quarterly. 24(2). 

National Archives (2022). Civil Rights Act (1964). Retrieved from https://www.archives.gov/milestone-documents/civil-rights-act. 

National Park Service, (n.d.). The modern civil rights movement, 1954-1964. Retrieved from https://www.nps.gov/subjects/civilrights/modern-civil-rights-movement.htm#:~:text=African%20American%20mass%20demonstrations%2C%20televised,Civil%20Rights%20Act%20of%201964.

Rose, A.D. (1991). Ends or means: An overview of the history of the Adult Education Act. ERIC Clearinghouse on Adult, Career, and Vocational Education. Retrieved from  https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED341875.pdf. 

Smith, M.K. (2002). Malcolm Knowles, informal adult education, self-direction and andragogy. The encyclopedia of pedagogy and informal education. Retrieved from https://infed.org/mobi/malcolm-knowles-informal-adult-education-self-direction-and-andragogy/ on January 18, 2024.

Smith, R.E., (1968). Apportionment of funds under the Manpower Development and Training Act of 1962. The Journal of Human Resources, 3(4), 499-514. Retried from https://doi.org/10.2307/144800. 

U.S. Department of Labor, (n.d.). Legal highlight: The Civil Rights Act of 1964. Retrieved from https://www.dol.gov/agencies/oasam/civil-rights-center/statutes/civil-rights-act-of-1964.

Wolfe, M.L. (1978). The Vocational Education Act of 1963 as amended: A background paper. (pp. 8-9).