EDAC 631 Group 7

 

Name	Comment on
Sandra   Hadi	Donovan Mann   and   Janet Shindler

 

Adult and Community Education in the 1990s: A Transformative Time in America

Hadi ur Rahman Hadi: Writer, Summarize, Proofreader, Citation Generator

Sandra Roussel: Writer, Summarize, Proofreader, Citation Editor
Department of Educational Studies, Ball State University

EDAC 631 Adult and Community Education

Dr. Bo Chang

February 4, 2024

 

Adult and Community Education in the 1990s: A Transformative Time in America

Although this article primarily examines the 1990s, it is crucial to recognize how advancements during the 1960s influenced the events of the 1990s. In the 1960s, there was a growing acknowledgment of the significance of adult and community education, emphasizing its role in promoting social equality, economic empowerment, and individual growth. The establishment of new laws and a shift in societal attitudes during this period provided the basis for the ongoing advancement and expansion of adult education programs in the subsequent years.

In the 1990s, various viewpoints discussed professional development and professionalism. Some believed that adult education had a duty to bring about societal transformations within the community. According to Brookfield (2000), adult education research approaches in the 1990s were greatly influenced by critical reflection. However, this perspective faces challenges from the growing postmodern viewpoint, which emphasizes the significance of the local, transitional, and ever-changing aspects (Brookfield, 2000, p. 34).

According to Brookfield (2000), the concept of transformative learning, which pertains to lifelong learning, adult education, and community education, is interconnected and was first introduced in the 1990s. Bennet and Bell (2006) state that the 1990s were a vibrant era for adult and community education, characterized by worldwide transformations, technological advancements, and the recognition of the significance of lifelong learning. Various factors, such as shifts in labor markets, advancements in technology, and the acquisition of new skills, have significantly altered the policy in education in the United States. Other factors like social justice in adult and community education, increased access to open information, globalization, and the importance of technological progress and participation have also played a significant role in this transitional era (Bennet & Bell, 2006; Milana, 2012; Creighton & Hudson, 2001).

In the mid-1990s, there was a significant political transformation in the United States known as the 'Republican Revolution,' as described by Gold in 1996. This revolution aimed to redefine federal, state, and local government responsibilities and duties by implementing a New Federalism approach in public policy. Watson and Gold (1998) believed that state and local governments could be more receptive than federal agencies, forming the basis of this approach.

Highlights

President Bill Clinton stated in 1997 that it is essential for every 8-year-old to possess reading skills, every 12-year-old to have access to the Internet, every 18-year-old to have the opportunity to attend college, and every adult American to continuously engage in lifelong learning.

In the 1990s, adult and community education had a crucial impact on the U.S. workforce. Key landscape trends include globalization, technological changes, demographic shifting, lifelong learning, adult literacy and primary education, and global adult education initiatives (Watson & Gold, 1998). Between 1967 and 1991, enrollment rates for Adult Basic Education, Adult Secondary Education, English as a Second Language, and Workforce Literacy significantly rose. The number of enrollees skyrocketed from 0.389 million to 3.6 million. State and local funds increased from $8.3 to $560 million, and federal funds expanded from $26.3 to $238.8 million, accounting for roughly 30% of total expenditure (Milana & McBain, 2014; OVAE, 1991; Rose, 1991).

A significant shift occurred in US adult education and literacy support in August 1998. The adult primary education delivery system overhaul started with the Workforce Investment Act (P.L. 105-220; 1998). In the initial session of the 105th Congress, the U.S. House of Representatives started discussions on education, labor, workplace, and workforce with the introduction of H.R. The Employment, Training, and Literacy Enhancement Act, also known as 1385, was enacted on April 17, 1997.

The signing of the Workforce Investment Act took place on August 7, 1998, by President Clinton. Federal Adult Education programs provide support and resources for adults seeking to further their education and improve their skills. The Workforce Investment Act comprises five sections: Title I pertains to workforce investment systems and comprises six chapters. Title II is focused on adult education and literacy and consists of four chapters and 19 sections. Title III encompasses workforce investment-related activities. Title IV concerns the Rehabilitation Act Amendments of 1998, and Title V contains general provisions on Federal Adult Education.

The legislation created a system where adults could conveniently access various services, such as education and training, job search assistance, career counseling, and other forms of support. Nevertheless, it encounters obstacles such as insufficient financial resources and apprehensions regarding the caliber and oversight of the program (Public Law, 1998).

Influential Factors

Adult and community education underwent significant changes during the 1990s due to various societal, economic, and technological influences. President Bill Clinton in the 1990s actively endorsed Title II—Adult Education and Literacy, which consisted of 4 chapters and 19 sections. He provided additional backing for this cause through various initiatives and programs. President Clinton enacted this Act in 1998 to enhance financial support for various adult education initiatives. However, the Act mainly emphasized adult literacy and its influence on family literacy. The act that paved the way for AmeriCorps was the National and Community Service Trust Act of 1993, signed by President Bill Clinton in September of that year.

AmeriCorps was created in 1993 to address community concerns, build on successful programs, respond to the political climate, and combine service with education. The goal is to engage young Americans in civic activities, address societal issues, and provide a meaningful way to contribute to their communities while pursuing their academic and professional goals (Federal Adult Education: A Legislative History 1964-2013).

According to Rojewski's research in 2002, the objective is to improve adult education programs by making them more accessible and of higher quality. The main concerns being addressed include literacy problems, workforce skills development, and meeting the unique requirements of adult learners. It is crucial for individuals with low literacy levels and limited prior education, with the ultimate goal of alleviating poverty.

Chang, (2020). Summarized the 1990s as A Boom Time In America, covering issues of Health care, Social security reform, Violence, Gun control, No Child Left Behind, Distance Education Programs, Cultural Diversity or Multiculturalism, The Americans With Disabilities Act (1990), the Law of don't ask, don't tell, and the dot (.com) Gold revolution where people relied less on the government, and more on themselves.

Influential Factors

The legislation known as the Act of Workforce, Welfare Reform Bills, and PRWORA in 1996 has laid the groundwork for expanding community college systems and numerous other initiatives. Numerous training and skill development opportunities were made available through various initiatives and programs to address workplace requirements, enhance job prospects, and improve literacy access. It also allowed immigrants to acquire English as a second language, a fundamental requirement. Furthermore, this opportunity paved the way for students to seamlessly transition to universities for further studies at a reduced expense during the initial two years. This arrangement enables a broader range of individuals to pursue formal higher education in the United States. Dull (2023) further discussed the ongoing change in funding emphasis for enhancing the workforce and established a vast range of trade school courses and technical degree programs that remain highly favored (p. 5).

Chang (2020) summarized the 1990s as A Boom Time In America, covering issues of Health care, Social security reform, Violence, Gun control, No Child Left Behind, Distance Education Programs, Cultural Diversity or Multiculturalism, The Americans With Disabilities Act (1990), the Law of don't ask, don't tell, and the dot (.com) Gold revolution where people relied less on the government, and more on themselves.

Implications

In today's era of globalization, it is crucial to recognize the significance of adult education in improving literacy rates, offering opportunities to people in isolated regions, and alleviating poverty rates. The assistance of advancing technology has contributed to the advancement of adult education, which involves various aspects such as improving job opportunities and career growth, encouraging involvement in local communities, supporting globalization, advocating for active participation in democracy, and nurturing the commitment to lifelong learning. According to Kowalski and Fallon (1986, p. 32), Adult and Community Education is a perpetual program and process. The shifting perspective on educational leadership and management is likely the main factor influencing a more favorable environment for community education.

Lifelong learning and ongoing education arose in the 1990s and remain vital. Many training and skill development opportunities were provided using diverse initiatives and programs to meet workplace needs, improve job prospects, and promote literacy access. It helped immigrants learn English as a second language. Creating a pathway to transfer to universities for the last two years of college at a reduced cost, increasing opportunities for higher education in the US. This changed funding priorities, creating sought-after trade school programs and technical degrees today. The 1990s saw considerable efforts that greatly enhanced adult education worldwide. These initiatives included lifelong learning, continuing education, distance learning, community college growth, workforce development, education for community needs, AAACE lobbying and policy efforts, and Adult and Literacy Act enactment.

 Table 1. Summary of History of Adult and Community Education in the 1990s

Area	Summary
Social Background	·       Diversification of programs and Education is based on the community needs. ·       Individual empowerment and Workforce development ·       Lifelong and continuing education ·       Immigration and English as a second language
Highlights	·       The Workforce Act ·       Welfare Reform Bills ·       Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act of 1996 (PRWORA). ·       Further supported Title II—Adult Education and Family Literacy ·       Higher Education Act Reauthorization and lifelong learning
Influential Factors	·       The National and Community Service Trust Act of 1993, signed by President Bill Clinton in September 1993 ·       American Association of Adult and Continuing Education (AAACE) ·       National Center for Adult Learning and Literacy (NCALL)
Implications	·       Educational Diversity. ·       Funds distribution ·       Specific programs and initiatives. ·       The use of technology and distance learning. ·       Accessibility, accountability, and performance measures. ·       Policy shifts and economic development. ·       Ongoing challenges and the future of adult education.

 

References

Chang, B. (2020). 1990s-2000s. Adulteducation. https://changbo111.wixsite.com/adulteducation/1990s-2000s

Creighton, S., & Hudson, L. (2001). Participation trends and patterns in adult education: 1991 to 1999. Education Statistics Quarterly, 3(4), 15–18.

Gold, S. (1998). Issues raised by the New Federalism. National Tax Journal, 49(2), 273-287.

Spelling and grammar checker. (2009). Grammarly: Free Writing AI Assistance. https://Grammarly.com

Kowalski, T. J., & Fallon, J. A. (1986). Community Education: Processes and Programs. Fastback 243. Phi Delta Kappa Educational Foundation, Eighth and Union, Box 789, Bloomington, IN 47402.

Milana M (2013). Incentives and Disincentives to Invest in Human Resources. In G. K. Zarifis & M. Gravani, (eds.), Challenging the 'European Area of Lifelong Learning’: a critical response (pp. 61–73). Dordrecht: Springer.

National Advisory Council on Adult Education [NACAE] (1980). A history of the Adult Education Act. Washington, DC: Author

Office of Vocational and Adult Education (OVAE) (1991). Education Act: 1966-1991. Washington, DC: Division of Adult Education and Literacy. Retrieved on March 3, 2014, from: http://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ovae/pi/AdultEd/anniv40/ae-act.pdf

Rojewski, J. (2002). Preparing the workforce for tomorrow: A conceptual framework for career and technical education. Journal of Vocational Education Research, 27(1), 7–35.